Ancient philosophy was based first on the choice of and the commitment to a certain way of life, promoted by a particular philosophical school, in which friendship, teaching and constant spiritual exercising would make conversion possible. For Stoicism, this conversion consisted mainly in the control of our emotions, the appeasement of our mind, its speculative elevation to and communion with the "eternal reason" at work in the universe. The first spiritual exercise of the Stoic philosophers consisted in maintaining a state of spiritual self-consciousness. Through this constant spiritual tension they were able to know and fully desire what they were doing at all times.
This constant striving for self-consciousness is very much like what Eastern Christians try to do when they "keep watch over the heart". The full consciousness of the Stoics also allowed those who lived it to remain focused on the present, leaving behind what was no longer, and not worrying about what was not yet. In welcoming each small moment of life taken for what it is, the Stoic strengthens his ability to acquiesce to the cosmic order as a whole. This attitude resembles that of the Christian who welcomes every moment as part of God's mysterious Providence, even the difficult moments, knowing that God's goodness is at work anyway.
As a spiritual exercise, memorization of biblical verses plays a key role in the Christian life, since the Word of God is very much like a weapon (a sword, says Paul in Ephesians 6), to be used in spiritual warfare. So it was for the Jews already, centuries before Christ’s coming. For instance, we read in Deuteronomy 11, 18: “Therefore, take these words of mine into your heart and soul. Bind them on your arm as a sign, and let them be as a pendant on your forehead.” Memorization of the key principles of Stoic philosophy (the first one being to distinguish between what depends on us and what doesn’t (1)) is also a basic Stoic spiritual exercise.
By keeping these principles in mind, the Stoic can apply them to each new situation to help him determine how to react and behave. Meditation on these principles is also instrumental in the conversion process. This meditation usually takes the form of a mental exercise involving imagination and anticipation (especially the anticipation of death), to prepare for difficult times, in order to better cope with them and accept them as they are. Jews and Christians also ponder upon their finiteness, to remember what they really are and better prepare themselves to die: ”For you are dust, and to dust you shall return.” (Gn 3:19)
To foster memorization and meditation, reading and listening were also part of the spiritual equation. The works of the master and those of other great poets or thinkers were used to produce the expected inner transformation. Thus, when a Stoic read a philosophical text, he was not only nor primarily looking for ideas, but also and above all for the transformation that the text was supposed to produce in him in the first place. This is exactly what the Jew and the Christian seek when they read the Bible, they who know the performative dimension of the word of God (see Is 55:11).
Moreover, the thorough study and exegetical commentary of their philosophical works was not considered by the Stoics as a mere intellectual experience, but, again, as a spiritual one. This helps us to understand that the books we have inherited from Antiquity were not written for the sole purpose of transmitting the knowledge of the masters to the disciples. They had a pedagogical function, for they were supposed to lead their authors and/or readers to an ever deeper conversion through reading, meditation and writing. In the same way, Christian exegesis (knowledge of God) and spiritual intimacy (love of God) are supposed to grow together in the life of a biblical scholar.
These few examples suffice to show us how similar some of the Stoic spiritual exercises are to our Christian ascetic and devotional practices. They are not identical, their main purpose is different (participation in the divine life is not the conformity of the mind with eternal reason construed as the soul of the world), but at least in their technical aspect, the two groups of exercises obviously have something in common. To describe this similarity in more detail, we could give other examples, this time taken from the Epicurean school. We would see, for example, that the idea of having a spiritual director was central in the Epicurean philosophy.
The Epicureans also encouraged the examination of conscience, as well as confession and fraternal correction, to overcome the guilt fuelled by the awareness of one's faults. But the essential point is that ancient Greco-Roman philosophy was a way of life and, as such, was articulated in daily life around a whole series of spiritual exercises aimed at an ardently desired inner transformation. This makes ancient philosophy resemble the Christian religion in many ways. There is something beautiful and moving in this Pagan attempt to reach the divine realm through a tenacious commitment to a demanding way of life.
These ancient philosophers deserve our admiration and gratitude. Their example both inspired the Fathers of the Church and forced them to better define and present what specifically the Christian way of life was offering to mankind.
__________
(1) HADOT, Pierre, Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique, Albin Michel, 2002, p. 26.
This constant striving for self-consciousness is very much like what Eastern Christians try to do when they "keep watch over the heart". The full consciousness of the Stoics also allowed those who lived it to remain focused on the present, leaving behind what was no longer, and not worrying about what was not yet. In welcoming each small moment of life taken for what it is, the Stoic strengthens his ability to acquiesce to the cosmic order as a whole. This attitude resembles that of the Christian who welcomes every moment as part of God's mysterious Providence, even the difficult moments, knowing that God's goodness is at work anyway.
As a spiritual exercise, memorization of biblical verses plays a key role in the Christian life, since the Word of God is very much like a weapon (a sword, says Paul in Ephesians 6), to be used in spiritual warfare. So it was for the Jews already, centuries before Christ’s coming. For instance, we read in Deuteronomy 11, 18: “Therefore, take these words of mine into your heart and soul. Bind them on your arm as a sign, and let them be as a pendant on your forehead.” Memorization of the key principles of Stoic philosophy (the first one being to distinguish between what depends on us and what doesn’t (1)) is also a basic Stoic spiritual exercise.
By keeping these principles in mind, the Stoic can apply them to each new situation to help him determine how to react and behave. Meditation on these principles is also instrumental in the conversion process. This meditation usually takes the form of a mental exercise involving imagination and anticipation (especially the anticipation of death), to prepare for difficult times, in order to better cope with them and accept them as they are. Jews and Christians also ponder upon their finiteness, to remember what they really are and better prepare themselves to die: ”For you are dust, and to dust you shall return.” (Gn 3:19)
To foster memorization and meditation, reading and listening were also part of the spiritual equation. The works of the master and those of other great poets or thinkers were used to produce the expected inner transformation. Thus, when a Stoic read a philosophical text, he was not only nor primarily looking for ideas, but also and above all for the transformation that the text was supposed to produce in him in the first place. This is exactly what the Jew and the Christian seek when they read the Bible, they who know the performative dimension of the word of God (see Is 55:11).
Moreover, the thorough study and exegetical commentary of their philosophical works was not considered by the Stoics as a mere intellectual experience, but, again, as a spiritual one. This helps us to understand that the books we have inherited from Antiquity were not written for the sole purpose of transmitting the knowledge of the masters to the disciples. They had a pedagogical function, for they were supposed to lead their authors and/or readers to an ever deeper conversion through reading, meditation and writing. In the same way, Christian exegesis (knowledge of God) and spiritual intimacy (love of God) are supposed to grow together in the life of a biblical scholar.
These few examples suffice to show us how similar some of the Stoic spiritual exercises are to our Christian ascetic and devotional practices. They are not identical, their main purpose is different (participation in the divine life is not the conformity of the mind with eternal reason construed as the soul of the world), but at least in their technical aspect, the two groups of exercises obviously have something in common. To describe this similarity in more detail, we could give other examples, this time taken from the Epicurean school. We would see, for example, that the idea of having a spiritual director was central in the Epicurean philosophy.
The Epicureans also encouraged the examination of conscience, as well as confession and fraternal correction, to overcome the guilt fuelled by the awareness of one's faults. But the essential point is that ancient Greco-Roman philosophy was a way of life and, as such, was articulated in daily life around a whole series of spiritual exercises aimed at an ardently desired inner transformation. This makes ancient philosophy resemble the Christian religion in many ways. There is something beautiful and moving in this Pagan attempt to reach the divine realm through a tenacious commitment to a demanding way of life.
These ancient philosophers deserve our admiration and gratitude. Their example both inspired the Fathers of the Church and forced them to better define and present what specifically the Christian way of life was offering to mankind.
__________
(1) HADOT, Pierre, Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique, Albin Michel, 2002, p. 26.