In ancient times, Greco-Roman philosophy (the Romans inherited their understanding of culture from the Greeks and perpetuated the Greek philosophical tradition in Latin) was both a way of thinking and a way of life, the synthesis of which was a way of being that was meant to be "lived wisdom" or, at least, an expression of this love of wisdom that gave the philosophers their name. For the word “philosophy” means exactly that; it is composed of two Greek words: philo, “loving”, and sophia, “wisdom”.
This quest for wisdom was aimed at fighting inner turmoil caused by untamed passions, behaving in a rational and righteous way and finding lasting equanimity. To achieve such goals, the philosophers in these days gathered in different schools (Plato’s Academy, Aristotle’s Lyceum, Zeno’s Porch, etc.) and devoted their entire lives to their psychological, intellectual and ethical transformation, that is to say, to a conversion which they pursued through the regular practice of what Pierre Hadot calls "spiritual exercises".
These exercises were spiritual in the sense that they involved the whole of the human psyche, in all its dimensions: reason, will, memory, imagination, etc. This “spiritual” aspect was obviously different from what we Christians consider to be spiritual; for there is no true Christian spirituality without the active participation of the Holy Spirit to our interior life, and there is nothing like this in these pagan spiritual exercises. But notwithstanding this crucial difference, a comparison between Christianity and Greco-Roman philosophy is possible.
It is actually enlightening to consider the Pagan spiritual exercises from a Christian perspective. The differences are certainly made obvious, but so are the similarities. A comparison also shows that the Christians, to whom God revealed himself in the Word, benefited from the earlier spiritual quest of the Pagans, despite the fact that these Pagans remained in the “antechamber” of the full truth about God, trying to find their way to the living God with the sole forces of reason and will, in the hope of truly satisfying their spiritual longing.
Christians have been influenced by the Greco-Roman set of spiritual exercises, especially in reading philosophical works in which such exercises were on display. The early Christian way of understanding spirituality and undertaking a spiritual journey reflect that cultural influence. An influence purified, perfected, Christianized, and passed down to us by the Fathers of the Church, along that of the Jewish tradition. If we look, for the sake of the argument, at what Stoicism has promoted, we will realize to what extent certain practices have anticipated those of Christianity.
We first notice that these exercises were meant to have a therapeutic effect on passions, so as to help man: 1) long only for what he can reasonably hope to acquire 2) live righteously, and 3) stop fearing what is unavoidable, like death. This “spirituality” implies detachment from all sorts of unnecessary goods, abidance with moral law, and the submission of the mind to “eternal reason” (logos), a divine principle discernible in the workings of the universe. The outcome was supposed to be perfect peace found through regular spiritual exercising.
Like Christianity, Stoicism was well aware of the spiritual damage caused by disordered passions. Stoic philosophers also knew that human beings were in great need of curing their covetous and fearful heart. Like Christians, they believed that they had to order their lives according to a higher principle, and for that they engaged in askesis (Greek word for asceticism of “spiritual exercises”). But unlike Christians, they believed that the higher principle to conform with was a supreme element at the foundation of the cosmos, but not separated from it.
They did so, with no other resources than those of human nature: i.e. with their human intelligence and their human will. Their spiritual journey was life-long and only ended with death. We Christians also know that there is no respite in spiritual warfare until life is over. What differs very much in Stoicism from the Christian experience though, is the “existential loneliness” where philosophers found themselves, when it comes to “fighting the good fight”: they could only count on their human capacities, whereas Christians can count on the grace of God.
But as far as the Christian type of spirituality also involves, somehow, the participation of the human will; and as far as it requires human decisions and commitment, the disciples of Christ also need to adopt a set of good ascetical habits, fostering their spiritual growth, both in a purgative way (to get rid of bad habits) and an illuminative way (to grasp the true understanding of life). And this is where the comparison with ancient Pagan askesis gets very interesting. In our next article we will look at a few typical exercises practiced by Stoic philosophers.
This quest for wisdom was aimed at fighting inner turmoil caused by untamed passions, behaving in a rational and righteous way and finding lasting equanimity. To achieve such goals, the philosophers in these days gathered in different schools (Plato’s Academy, Aristotle’s Lyceum, Zeno’s Porch, etc.) and devoted their entire lives to their psychological, intellectual and ethical transformation, that is to say, to a conversion which they pursued through the regular practice of what Pierre Hadot calls "spiritual exercises".
These exercises were spiritual in the sense that they involved the whole of the human psyche, in all its dimensions: reason, will, memory, imagination, etc. This “spiritual” aspect was obviously different from what we Christians consider to be spiritual; for there is no true Christian spirituality without the active participation of the Holy Spirit to our interior life, and there is nothing like this in these pagan spiritual exercises. But notwithstanding this crucial difference, a comparison between Christianity and Greco-Roman philosophy is possible.
It is actually enlightening to consider the Pagan spiritual exercises from a Christian perspective. The differences are certainly made obvious, but so are the similarities. A comparison also shows that the Christians, to whom God revealed himself in the Word, benefited from the earlier spiritual quest of the Pagans, despite the fact that these Pagans remained in the “antechamber” of the full truth about God, trying to find their way to the living God with the sole forces of reason and will, in the hope of truly satisfying their spiritual longing.
Christians have been influenced by the Greco-Roman set of spiritual exercises, especially in reading philosophical works in which such exercises were on display. The early Christian way of understanding spirituality and undertaking a spiritual journey reflect that cultural influence. An influence purified, perfected, Christianized, and passed down to us by the Fathers of the Church, along that of the Jewish tradition. If we look, for the sake of the argument, at what Stoicism has promoted, we will realize to what extent certain practices have anticipated those of Christianity.
We first notice that these exercises were meant to have a therapeutic effect on passions, so as to help man: 1) long only for what he can reasonably hope to acquire 2) live righteously, and 3) stop fearing what is unavoidable, like death. This “spirituality” implies detachment from all sorts of unnecessary goods, abidance with moral law, and the submission of the mind to “eternal reason” (logos), a divine principle discernible in the workings of the universe. The outcome was supposed to be perfect peace found through regular spiritual exercising.
Like Christianity, Stoicism was well aware of the spiritual damage caused by disordered passions. Stoic philosophers also knew that human beings were in great need of curing their covetous and fearful heart. Like Christians, they believed that they had to order their lives according to a higher principle, and for that they engaged in askesis (Greek word for asceticism of “spiritual exercises”). But unlike Christians, they believed that the higher principle to conform with was a supreme element at the foundation of the cosmos, but not separated from it.
They did so, with no other resources than those of human nature: i.e. with their human intelligence and their human will. Their spiritual journey was life-long and only ended with death. We Christians also know that there is no respite in spiritual warfare until life is over. What differs very much in Stoicism from the Christian experience though, is the “existential loneliness” where philosophers found themselves, when it comes to “fighting the good fight”: they could only count on their human capacities, whereas Christians can count on the grace of God.
But as far as the Christian type of spirituality also involves, somehow, the participation of the human will; and as far as it requires human decisions and commitment, the disciples of Christ also need to adopt a set of good ascetical habits, fostering their spiritual growth, both in a purgative way (to get rid of bad habits) and an illuminative way (to grasp the true understanding of life). And this is where the comparison with ancient Pagan askesis gets very interesting. In our next article we will look at a few typical exercises practiced by Stoic philosophers.